Chapter the Second: Blood, Sand and Crowns
There is no doubt that the invasion of the Empire in 1841 was a terrible gamble - one that would would cost much blood. But it was also sacred duty to spill this blood to reunite the land, lest that spilled in the War of Independence have been shed in vain. More importantly, there had been a pressing, unspoken threat that required war: the Ottoman's Empire growing attempt to join other foreign courts in trying to assert its influence over the Greek state. Such a thing could not have been allowed to come to pass; war was a necessity.
When the Greeks first laid siege to the Ottoman fortresses and pushed into their provinces, there was a small hope that the wars raging far in the East would spare them costly battles. The hope was quickly dashed by the Ottoman 5th Army, a reserve unit in the Balkans that by itself matched the numbers of all the Greek armies. As the Turks advanced, the Hellens' navy also had to withdraw from the sea in face of a much larger fleet.
It could have spelt the end of the adventure right there, had the Turks been led as superbly as the Greeks. Commanding the Stratos Magna Grecia and Thessalias was Spyros Typaldos-Alfonsatos, by far the finest young land General in the army - one who played successfully his sole advantages; greater mobility and artillery superiority. His opponent, Ali Bey, was an average commander at best, and his textbook strategies hounded him until the utterly annihilation of the 5th Army.
After their victory at Larisa, General Typaldos pursued Bey's troops and forced several skirmishes, culminating in their destruction at Edessa. Much blood was spilled to achieve it.
As the Greeks sieged the cities of Thessalia, they breathed with relief. They heard of battles in the north, as the Serbs had joined the war on their side - but no more Turkish armies seemed to be headed their way. Most were pinned in far away battlefields, and the Greek commanders did not waste a minute recapturing Greek towns across the land. True to himself, their cautious King started to applaud their efforts prudently, even as he tried to negotiate a truce behind closed curtains.
But all was not well: the losses at Larisa had been high and replacing the fallen was difficult - manpower was short, and in the spring of '42, it's Bedouins from Africa who came to shore up the Greek ranks. Just in time for disastrous news.
Serbia resisted brilliantly, but the Ottomans knocked her out of the war by burning down Belgrade. Spain soon after left Aleppo, her overconfident armies thrown back into the sea!
Everything then seemed in jeopardy. Fresh Ottoman troops marched on Greece by land, others came by sea. The overextended Greeks and their Tunisian reinforcements seemed unlikely to resist. The West's advisors urged and pleaded with the King to find a way to sign peace whilst he could - even if all he could get was a handful of border towns. The military was quite forceful in demanding his full support for the war effort, and insisted on regaining even more than 'just' Thessalia.
Otto hesitated and played both sides well into the Fall, where a great battle took place near liberated Janina. The Ottomans now had skilled leadership and stronger forces. Envoys from the King urged the Stratos Thessalias to stand down at the last minute. But then they saw the ships. A large warfleet approached the port, flying battle-standards of the Two Sicilies. On board, Admiral Nider himself prepared the landing of a vast Italian army, ready for battle.
The friendship of the Sicilians would long be remembered. Only a few thousand Turks escaped Janina, only to be dispatched once more by the allied armies at Florina.
Florina and Janina marked the beginning of a Turkish rout. Though the war would last almost for a year still, thanks in part to the Russian advance in Anatolia, the Ottomans could seemingly no longer mount any serious counterattack. Sicilian ships blockaded the Straits and Greek armies marched in deep in Bulgaria. For a few precious moments, some even dared to dream of Constantinople.
But when it became clear that the Russians were about to end their offensive, the catholic King finally had his way. The state coffers were not just empty; the debt of the State was mounting at an alarming rate. The time had come to get the best deal possible and end this war. After almost two years of fighting, Greece needed to breathe.
The gains were considerable, but the victories had been so stunning that the majority of the population expect more and demanded even more attempts at expansion.
Across Europe the Greek victory surprised and won applause. The little Greek state had defeated a titan, and forced everyone to rethink the balance of power in the region. The recovered lands were rightfully Greek, so no one could raise complaints. At home, support for policies aiming at 'liberating' the rest of the Greeks under Ottoman yoke skyrocketed. Indeed, increasingly, its 'All Christians' that some wanted 'freed'! King Otto wanted to hear none of it, expecting decades of peace to consolidate his unexpected gains. These endless wars had cost him far too much precious sleep already.
Knowing another war with the Ottomans impossible, but wishing to channel the popular outbursts of Jingoism, Nider pushed for another colonial adventure. "A short little war, it will pay for itself. Remember what's flowing in from Tunisia! It'll appease the masses!" Otto shook his head, but the Grand Admiral's advice was becoming downright dangerous to ignore. Since his arrival at Janina, especially, the whole army was at his beck and call. And he was, it seems, equally skilled at politics. Russian pressure in his favor was such, that Otto had to award him domains in conquered lands and grant him leave to prepare an expedition to the desert.
Algeria, once an Ottoman domain, had now largely been conquered by France, and was reduced to the region of Constantine. The fine iron of Constantine and Biskra was highly praised in Europe and in high-demand by many militaries. It's extraction had been slow and inefficient since the French wars, and the Greeks promised their merchants to restore supply. Perhaps this argument even helped win over foreign indifference, as the Stratos crossed the border.
A short little war. Indeed, the Algerians were in no shape to oppose any serious resistance. But the burning sands of the desert took their toll nonetheless. The sun was as deadly as the enemy.
The Russian Empire supported the venture and funded much of it. The Tsar's own ambitions towards Constantinople made him for a time a natural ally for the Greeks.
But as the brave warriors of Athens braved sun and sand on foreign battlefields, much was happening at home and in the capitals of Europe. Assertive Athens' star shone increasingly bright, and even the leaders of the West could not miss the stark contrast with the Ottomans' decrepitude. Early in 1844, Spain - despite it's defeats in Aleppo - was now accorded much more consideration than the Porte Sublime. And as the Algerian campaign was drawing to a close, the Powers' eyes were on Athens. There was now little doubt - the balance of power had changed.
The King expected the prestige to be his', but the people were chanting Lord Nider's name. Otto, skilled diplomat, offered him to lead the government in his name as Greece asserted itself.
The young Admiral could have been content with such an arrangement, but his supporters were not. "Greece is a great power, heir of Rome, heart of Orthodoxy - and must be ruled so!" was an argument spreading like wildfire. Nider always had minor titles, but there were now persistent rumors across Greece that his bloodline descended from old Byzantine royalty! It seemed like a gross fabrication, if only because it was far too convenient, but the word would just not die - because no one wanted it to. The clamor for a Greek King became such that most expected a Palace coup to be imminent, at home and abroad.
"Nor ruthless enough to be feared, nor compassionate enough to be loved, nor competent enough to be respected, not Christian enough to be ordained by God!" was how the young Otto would later be described by Greek historians. Far from being bolstered by Greece's growing status, the state's victories only weakened him. "Greeks won freedom and glory in the name of the Holy Faith of Christ - yet our Prince bows to the Bishop of Rome and sabotages our national resurrection!" they were the words of General Yannis Makriyannis who marched line infantry under Greek flags through the central square under the cheers of the populace. The crowd would not relent, and numerous public figures, officers and nobles made passionate speeches calling for a new Monarchy.
General and Mayor Makriyannis, who 'defied' his friend and Prime Minister to 'force' him to accept the 'burden' of a Crown.
It's in this context that Nider returned to Athens triumphantly in late October. Skilled politician, he first professed loyalty and exalted the service of the sitting King, saying he was honored by his new positions. His entrance into Athens was regal and triumphant nonetheless. The leader waited until the crowd's demands became very forceful before speaking, declaring forcefully that he would not usurp a Crown - that he would not be King unless it was offered legitimately. But in private, this only helped to raise the pressure on Otto to unsustainable levels. He was not even King in his palace anymore. On the first of November, everything unfolded.
"Long live the King!" By the Grace of God, Constantine XII, King of the Greeks, Protector of the Patriachs!
In exchange for quietly abdicating the Throne and professing loyalty - Otto was spared exile and made Duke of Neopatras. He never again had any other role in public affairs, but was never again conspired against - indeed it appears he and his family enjoyed considerable royal protection. Nonetheless, as the years passed, the Duke of Neopatras' poor skills at management would impoverish his personal fortune. In his late years, he would turn to poetry and music. Today, translated in many languages and given modern rhythms,
Otto's writings have been made into modern music.
[LYRICS]
Regardless, at the time, these events understandably stirred confusion across Europe, but given the orderly transition and Greece's new standing, there was ultimately little opposition. The decision to use a Byzantine royal name and to claim a long-forgotten title such as 'Protector of the Patriarchs' caused concerns of Imperial ambition and claims to Rome - but it was ultimately a compromise; many had apparently suggested that Constantine crown himself Emperor of the Holy City rather than King of the Hellens.
The agitation died down rapidly. Ironically, the surprising accession to power of an aggressive military leader led to the first substantive period of peace in the region in decades. Diplomatic offensives to court Europe and to gain the loyalty of neighboring states were in full swing. Efforts to pay down the still-impressive Greek debt one of the priorities of the King. More importantly, Greeks now ruled Greece, and there was no longer dissent at every royal decision, though mighty Britain especially was said to have mourned it's resulting loss of influence in the region.
Efforts to build a basic industry expanded, but were slow to progress beyond basic railroads for lack of able craftsmen. Greece's core population was unfortunately still small despite it's stature, complicating efforts - and despite over a decade of encouragement to the Clergy to educate the masses, the literacy levels remained low. With purple on his shoulders, Leonidas-now-Constantine understood for the first time that foreign conquests could not be his sole focus. Yet, the liberation of Greek lands could help correct demographic weakness; making the path of war an option to be considered.
But such concerns were not public affairs at the time. 1845 saw just the opposite: heralded as a brilliant jewel, Athens, a city in full expansion, garnered attention and glories from abroad, and reaped the fruits of her conquests triumphally. The Greeks, now united, formed an impressive society.
The way people wrote about it, it almost sounded like the King had conquered India. The reality was less glorious, but the Maghrebi colonies did contribute much wealth to the small Kingdom.
As he prepared the future, the King wanted to know in detail the state of the realm. The great surveys of 1845 also marked the first comprehensive efforts at documenting Greek society.
Every issue, every person, every expense - everything now had to be documented to help improve the management of the Kingdom. [Click Picture to Enlarge]
The King's thoughts turned often to the many Greeks still living within the Ottoman Empire. Military development continued - first and foremost the expansion of the manpower pool that had been so nearly drained in the last conflict. Technologically, observers were sent to Prussia to help improve tactics and strategy. As he courted all around him, Constantine's icy disposition towards the Porte Sublime left little to imagination regarding the long-term purposes of his industrial and military efforts.
But the world was vast and there were other enemies jealous of the amount of attention such a tiny state was now receiving. Expansion in unexpected directions was entirely imaginable - and the riches of Egypt and the glory of Holy Land were one of the most tempting alternatives. Undoubtedly, 1846 and beyond would offer many surprises.
The State of the World in late 1845. The 'Great Power' of Greece little more than a speck of sand in a desert of jealous Crowns. [Click Picture to Enlarge]
